In order to allow outcomes to be attainable, the types of games can be discussed first. Ellington, Addinall and Percival (1982) try to identify the game in three categories:

1.      Pure games: The features are ’competition and rules’.

2.      Pure simulation: The features are ‘represent a real situation and are on-going’.

3.      Pure case studies: The features are ‘in depth study’ and ‘illustration of special or general characteristics’.

They also believe that these can be combined in a mutual way. For example, ‘simulation games used as case studies’, which can be seen in some educational environment or teaching events.

However, it is relatively difficult to identify ‘game’. Same as the question that I keep in mind, will it still be considered as a ‘game’ without having the component of competition? Of course it is. For example, the online role play scenario will provide the players the environment to explore, however, not necessary to complete with others or even themselves.

How can it be considered as a well-designed educational game?

Whitton (2010 p.79) indicates six components to engage the players in the game:

1.      Completion - completing the game and collecting the set of game challenges.

2.      Competition - competing against others to solve challenges first or fastest.

3.      Narrative - immersion in the ongoing story.

4.      Puzzle-solving - solving the ongoing riddles and challenges.

5.      Community - the discussion boards and live collaborative events.

6.      Creativity - creative problem-solving or the development of artefacts.

For example, the ‘narrative’ and ‘completion’ can be usually seen in the online role play scenario through the conversation between the player and the computer. It is also quite common in commercial computer games.

Reference:

Brandes, D. and Phillips, H. (1977) Gamesters' handbook. 140 games for teachers and group leaders, London : Hutchinson.

Ellington, H., Addinall, E. and Percival, F. (1982) A Handbook Of Game Design, London : Kagan Page

Whitton, N. (2010) Encouraging Engagement in Game-Based Learning, International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 1(1), pp.75-84.

It is said by Saks (2006) that employees who are engaged exhibit attentiveness and mental absorption in their work. Wagner and Harter (2006) also indicate the engagement allow employees to display a deep, emotional connection toward their workplace.

Although it is related to the organizational performance, it does not directly link to the learning or motivation. While I am considering why immersion can lead people to learn, I think one of the possible reasons is because they are engaged in the game environment, and then they learn naturally with enjoyment.

So, engagement is a key. Why not learn through ‘games’?

After reading part of Gee’s work (2007), I think one of his arguments is as following. The reason why people generally believe that ‘playing video games is a waste of time’ is because video games belong to one of the semiotic domains, and they are not expected as the academic domains by some parents. As a result, they are not considered as valuable objectives in this society.

It seems to be reasonable, however, can people really learn through ‘immersion’?

Murray (1998 p.99) mentions about the enjoyment of immersion “In a participatory medium, immersion implies learning to swim, to do the things that the new environment makes possible.” In the MMOGs environment, we do learn how to navigate our avatar in a brand new environment. By immersing ourselves into the virtual world, we do actively learn how to communicate, interact with people, and gain sense of safety and respect from others.

Look closer to the narrative component of the MMOGs or games.

Murray (1998 p.100) argues that stories arouse the deepest fears and desires from ourselves. We feel satisfied when we project ourselves into a wonderland where the dreams are safe and sound. I believe it is why we are more willing to devote our times into game environment instead of listening to a lecture or attending a seminar. We feel being protected and being cared in the environment, and then we are engaged. Afterwards, taken for granted, we learn better.

“The great advantage of participatory environments in creating immersion is their capacity to elicit behavior that endows the imaginary objects with life”. (Murray, 1998 p.112)

I think that is where the simulation games can take advantage from it.

However, the key is how the learning can be transferred into the real-life content.

Well, to be honest, I don’t know, but I think I have learnt a trick. We need to escape from the real-world to stimulate our potential (a new ‘me’) to learn, but we still need to realize it new ‘me’ is not real, and we should remind ourselves of knowing the way back by seeing Harold’s moon. (Murray, 1998 p.103)

References:

Murray H. J, (1998) "Immersion" In Murray H. J, Hamlet on the Holodeck, pp.97-125, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press

Gee, J.P. (2007) What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy Palgrave Macmillan.

The first reflection I would like to make is from the no.1 learning principle of Gee (2004), ‘Active, Critical Learning Principle’. Players “have to play to learn,¨ (Turkle, 1995, p. 70) Once the players choose to enter the virtual world, there is no longer obligation to force the players to learn. However, I still believe that a certain degree of engagement is still required for this informal learning in order to keep immerse in the virtual world. It is relative easy to access the MMOG world, and it is much easier for the players to quit playing it.

The second reflection from me is learning social practice through others. The players have to play and learn from others if they want “to develop genuine expertise.”(Steinkuehler, 2004, p.527) Taking myself as example, I have been used to be a solo online player even in an online environment of MMOG. I can still discover the virtual world quite well. Admittedly, I can learn faster through being coached by senior players. It brings the no.16 learning principle of Gee (2004) to me, ‘Mltiple Rotes Principle Depending on the learning styles the players have, they can choose alternative styles to make progress in the game.

Apart from that, I still believe that the interpersonal relationship building is a significant issue in MMOG environment. Turkle (1995) also mentions that the excitement of the game comes from having personal relationship and being part emerging politics and activities in community. Moreover, according to the no.22 learning principle of Gee (2004), ‘Intuitive Knowledge Principle’, some intuitive or tacit knowledge is often shared in an affinity group, which means you can easily learn from experienced players. Take the apprenticeship in the ‘LINEAGE’ as an example in MMOGs, Steinkuehler (2004) indicates that by modeling successful performance, key material, social, and contextual aspects that are crucial for learning are identified, and opportunity for practice and immediate feedback are allowed.

In this case, not only the social practice is constructed and learned from the players and their tutors but also the no.27 learning principle of Gee (2004) is brought out, ‘Explicit information On-Demand and Just-in-Time Principle’, the leaning can be applied and the feedback can be received both immediately. I believe that this principal makes enormous contribution to learning when applying learning and teaching to CBL(Computer-Based Learning) or CAL(Computer-Assisted Learning) environment.

References:

Gee, J (2004) What Video Games Have To Teach Us About Learning And Literacy, New York ; Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan

Steinkuehler, C. A. (2004) Learning in massively multiplayer online games, In Y. B. Kafai, W. A. Sandoval, N. Enyedy, A. S. Nixon, & F. Herrera (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp. 521-528) Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Turkle, S. (1995) Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the Internet, New York: Touchstone.

It is quite obvious to note that the players are required to participate in gaming actively and take actions all the time.

2) Design Principle

?

3) Semiotic Principle

In the game, chatting with friends by typing is different from waving your hands to them. Even the gifts (weapon or helmet) can be given as a symbol of friendship.

4) Semiotic Domains Principle

I think this one is related to the previous principle, where the players learn how their team image can be symbolized by the flag or items.

5) Meta-level thinking about Semiotic Domain Principle

Based on the previous two principles, players can not only appreciate or master in different groups of semiotic domains but also distinguish between them.

6) "Psychosocial Moratorium" Principle

Players are more willing to take risks in the game. For example, try to kill a forest bear. (But I personally prefer to do something I will never do in real life, such as, kill an innocent rabbit.)

7) Committed Learning Principle

Most of the engaged players can’t get rid of playing, and consider their virtual identities as the extension of real-world ones. (I think it is where the immersion coours)

8) Identity Principle

Real-world identities link to virtual identities by projective identities where we can see the virtual ones are manipulated individually. (Try to play the games in different gender.)

9) Self-Knowledge Principle

This one is really interesting. Players are allowed to get to know themselves more in-depth. Taking myself as an example, I don’t like to fight for a team task in order to reach the huge prize or take challenges. I prefer to enjoy the scenery by myself.

10) Amplification of Input Principle

?

11) Achievement Principle

As it is shown in the game, the achievement records, there are the list of skills which the players have already learnt and the list of tasks which have already been completed.

12) Practice Principle

There are so many quests in this game, can be divided into individual and team. Try and error, players learn to master everything in the virtual world.

13). Ongoing Learning Principle

It seems that learning continues even when the goal is achieved. So, there are always new things to learn and to get familiar with in the game.

14) "Regime of Competence" Principle

The quests are challenging but still attainable. I think it is because of the community of this game, where you can always find someone has already achieve this goal.

15) Probing Principle

It seems to be similar to the experiential learning cycle. The learning happens when the player implement their hypothesis and receive results.

16) Multiple Routes Principle

Being a different race, or a different occupation, players are always able to choose alternative ways to play the game.

17) Situated Meaning Principle

18) Text Principle

19) Intertextual Principle

?

20) Multimodal Principle

This one is obvious. In multimedia environment, it is not essential to “talk” to others, there are so many alternative ways for the players to receive message or knowledge.

21) "Material Intelligence" Principle

I am not sure; maybe, the players can learn to appreciate the items of the game. Therefore, they comprehend how to utilize the resources to achieve the goal.

22) Intuitive Knowledge Principle

Maybe, player can learn to distinguish the places where high possibility to complete the quest / find the desired items is more guaranteed.

23) Subset Principle

?

24) Incremental Principle

The patterns players learn in early stage can be still taken into account when they move to advance levels. (EX: the geography information of the virtual world)

25) Concentrated Sample Principle

Players learn how to swim and how to talk with a character in very first beginning from instruction.

26) Bottom-up Basic Skills Principle

Players start to discover the unknown world from the basic skills and then move to the advanced ones.

27) Explicit Information On-Demand and Just-in-Time Principle

Players can always find the assistance from the “menu” or “help” in the game environment.

28) Discovery Principle

In the game environment, the hints from the game are limited. For example, the location of the key character of the task is provided but some of them are hidden in buildings and may be difficult to locate. Players need to discover and experience the game in their own way.

29) Transfer Principle

Players can recognize the hints from the map to carry out the quest, and they learn from the process. By repeating the same process and behavior patterns, players can master in completing the quests.

30) Cultural Models about the World Principle

31) Cultural Models about Learning Principle

32) Cultural Models about Semiotic Domains Principle

Cultural differentiation? To be honest, I didn’t perceive this perspective very clearly.

33) Distributed Principle

The knowledge is distributed and shared in the environment, and it can be easily noted through the language the players use and the symbols they agree on.

34) Dispersed Principle

I am kind of disagreeing with this one, if my perception is correct. I think the meaning of this game may be gone, but the rules of this kind of online role-play game can be applied to another similar game. Therefore, new learners will get to know the new environment more easily due to the previous game experience.

35) Affinity Group Principle

I think this one is related to the team building, sharing the goals and being together as a whole.

36) Insider Principle

Due to the impacts of immersion, some players can even take part in being a bug tracker for this game. They do know the game environment.

Reference:

Gee, J 2004, What Video Games Have To Teach Us About Learning And Literacy, New York ; Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan

WBT enables learners to explore by themselves. The general approach of how people learn is through the process ‘Tell them, show them, and let them try’. Compared with traditional learning, it is easier to access for the learners to ‘try’ by themselves. Taking simulation training as an example, the learners are able to play multiple roles in simulation. They can experience consequences of alternative behaviors and even the negative behaviors can be included. (Horton, 2000)

        In terms of test and exercise, WBT enables ‘immediate feedback’ to fit learners’ expectation. (Horton, 2000) In traditional approach, it takes ages for the learners to wait for their feedback. Even if the feedback is revealed after the test is completed, they will usually receive them as a whole instead of in piecemeal. WBT allows feedback to be demonstrated piece by piece, and keeps learners from missing several related questions because of a single misunderstanding. (Horton, 2000)

        Moreover, the hints can be provided in order to assist the learners to investigate the learning in depth. Hints can take many forms, such as: background information or instructions on how to perform the next step. (Horton, 2000) The role of giving the hints is quite similar to the role of facilitator in traditional training. However, to guide the learners in more specific way individually is definitely one of the strengths of WBT.

Finally, WBT enables learners to experience something nearly impossible to occur in real life. In a role-play scenario, Lee and Hoadley (2007) indicate that by acting as a different gender, learners observe more details in sexual incidences and even discriminations. Likewise, if the costs of failure are high, it is relatively suitable to use simulation for learning (Horton, 2000). For example, nuclear plant operators, airplane navigator.

Reference

Horton, W. (2000) Designing Web-Based Training : How To Teach Anyone Anything Anywhere Anytime, New York ; Chichester : Wiley

Lee, J.J., and Hoadley, C.M. (2007) Leveraging Identity to Make Learning Fun: Possible Selves and Experiential Learning in Massively Multiplayer Online Games(MMOGS), Innovate, Vol. 3, No. 6, http://innovateonline.info/?view=article&id=348

To begin with, among the six reasons why the players had engaged with the game (Whitton, 2011), I personally can be easily motivated by ‘completion’, ‘narrative’ and ‘puzzle-solving’. I think these educational games are quite interesting and fun compared to the rest of learning methods and approaches, such as: lecture, group discussion…

However, in the ARGOSI project, there is huge amount of responses indicate the disengagement of the learners. As it is mentioned in the conclusion part, if it is formally assessed and arranged as part of the education content, the percentage of engagement may increase. (Whitton, 2011) What I am thinking here is, by doing so, the learners may engage not because of the game design or the attractive true natural of ARG gams but because it is one of the mandatory elements of their study. So, the form of learning may not matter at all, just like the post-graduate students are all engaging in their dissertation if they need to obtain their master degree.

I also realize that it is not easy to find out why people do not engage instead of engaging. My initial thought to this is quite straightforward. Maybe it is just because that this game is designed as education-oriented, not leisure-oriented. Therefore, students will not easily accept the new policy or new learning materials which purely come from school authority. In my own experience and opinion, they usually consider these interventions as another kind of bothering. Moreover, according to adult learning theory, the learners are likely to resist unless they can choose the learning objects as being relevant to their own needs. (Swanson, 2011) Further, I assume that the low response rate is due to the learners’ self-diagnose needs do not match with the outcomes which they assume this ARGOSI project will produce.

What if the aim of the ARG game is to assist students to practice job interview skills, will it benefit their engagement? This goal is so practical and in my opinion, it can attract students to a certain extent. To be honest, I would like to design a game with this topic, and maybe I can do some research accordingly to investigate further.

Referenes:

Knowles, M., Holton, E., & Swanson, R. (2011) The Adult Learner : The Definitive Classic In Adult Education And Human Resource Development, Amsterdam ; Boston : Elsevier.

Whitton, N. (2010) Encouraging Engagement in Game-Based Learning. International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 1(1), pp.75–84.

Therefore, regarding the digital games, there are two ways of approaches to the narrative game design, and they can be listed as below.

1. Quest: Hero’s journey, storyline with task to be completed by a character, and followed by a starting point and an ending point.

2. Plot hooks: The storyline is conducted by revealing unanswered questions and uncertainties. It allows players to choose actions to activate responses from the scenes.

As it can be seen that the platform of Labyrinth allows people to investigate the learning process and unique learning path by clicking one of the options provided, I think it can be considered as a method to create through the Plot hook approach or similarly.

Furthermore, if the designer intent to involve a ‘Quest’ approach to a course on the environment of Labyrinth, it is also possible to adopt both ways (quest and plot hooks) to the game design.

Reference:

Dickey, M., 2000. Murder on Grimm Isle: The design of a Game-based Learning Environment. In: Freitas, S., & Maharg, P. eds., 2010, Digital Games And Learning, London : Continuum. Ch.6.

There are some ideas I would like to reflect as below:

1. Culture factors may matter

As it is mentioned in the article provided, due to the fact that the participants are international students, it may be relatively difficult for second language users to have real-time meetings purely online. Take myself as an example, I need to spend more time to read the discussion and then try to response some of them, I can’t image that if I can type all the real-time conversation in text and try to be as fast as while I am speaking to them. Can the language be a benefit instead of being a barrier? Will the technology help?

Not only are these, but also the factors of cultural issue involved. As it can be seen clearly, privacy is a main issue in Western counties. However, it is relatively weak when comparing with the Eastern world. In my country, most of companies declare strict regulation regarding prohibit employees to discuss the details of individual compensation and reward with others. In contrast, it is always an open ‘secret’ for all of the individuals and departments. You will always know your current ‘ranking’ among the whole group. Can this platform apply to all the culture?

2. Advantages

I believe that creativity may not be limited in the virtual world. By providing more possibility, it is easier to be ‘different’ in a virtual world. Due to the fact that ‘In virtual world, anything is possible’, you can even fly if you want. Why not try to having a conversation while walking along the beach?

Although it is emotionally inappropriate to chat through text only, not noticing any facial expression and emotional information is not provided, the delays of texts allow participants to monitor and self-censor their own thoughts. In real life, it can be easily out of control due to the immediate emotional reaction. However, in the Second Life environment, in order to chat through text, participants can confirm their own words before submitting to others.

3. Anonymity

Can we keep it fully anonymous? Even if providing voice communication, which is extremely convenient and more ‘real’ to the real world, the function itself limits the level of anonymity. Can we not only design our own avatar but also design our voice? Or, can ‘picking up your own voice’ be a pack of modules?

4. Identity

How you want your avatar (projected identity) to be? Why? Does it project something from yourself?

In business content, I think this point doesn’t really matter while carrying out a real ‘performance appraisal’. However, it can be well-managed when designing a training programme in order to fulfill some conditions in a training design. I fully agree that something which is difficult or impossible to be achieved may be easily access through virtual world, such as: inappropriate clothing and gender swaps.

Reference:

Morse, S. Littleton, F., Macleod, H. and Ewins, R. (2009) The Theatre of Performance Appraisal: potential for role play training in Second Life, in Higher Education in Virtual Worlds: Teaching and Learning in Second Life, (ed) Wankel, C, and Kingsley, J. Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.

I want to say that I spent lots of time in this game. Due to the fact that I was a big fan of SIMS computer-based version, I want to discover more about the difference between game devices which contains diversity.

The similarity:

- There are five main occupations you can choose from, and I have completed all of them to the highest degree.(Chef, teacher, sport man, fire man, artist)

- The task of occupation is set up with different levels and the requirements of skills and qualification should be met in order to achieve highest honor.

- You can give birth and build up a family with your partner.

- There are some random tasks and personal desires can be achieved as part of the overall goals

The difference:

- Mobile device provide easier access to the game, no need to turn on the computer and connect to internet

- The game control in the version is quite loose which means the goal can be easily achieved compared with computer-based version. For example, you don’t need to maintain the friendship with other citizens, and they will always consider you as friends no matter about if you contact them frequently or not. You can even develop your relationship with every citizen to be your partner. (I try to do so, and it really works!)

- The main player (sim) in this game does not have free will to take actions unless their emergent needs need to be satisfied.(ex: hungry, tired)

- No new game content is added

In other words, there won’t be any new citizen for you to discover, only 12 persons are available.

At very first beginning, I am keen on playing this version due to the loose design of the game. I am thinking I can achieve something I can’t do it on the computer version. Well, after all, I must admit that I feel bored soon when I complete every single task. It is very interesting to note that when the difficulty is eliminated, the fun decreased. However, if the goal is not attainable, the fun will no more exist.

Turing back to my personal experience, I have an unforgettable experience of ‘Sky Diving’ in Lake Taupo (New Zealand) five years ago when I went there for a long-term backpacker travelling. This can be considered as a ‘risky play’. The scenario is located in the air. I am the player and the coach must play with me at my back in order to guarantee my safety. The playing equipment is so essential to keep me alive and all I need to do is to jump out of the plane into 12,000 feet of sky. To be honest, when I jumped into the air, I have a true feeling of committing suicide. And I am also convinced that I will never do it again in my entire life. However, I realise that kind of excitement (or maybe less would be better for me) is one of the main factors of any various form of play.

By looking deeper to the true natural of play, I think it will benefit us to carry out game design in the following session. For example, not only the competition form of play is involved but also different form of individual or social events should be taken into consideration when designing or reviewing a game design.

Reference

Sutton-Smith B. (1997) The ambiguity of play, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press.